husbandry-sidebar Archives - British Waterfowl Association

Fencing

bwpadm — Sun, 14 Jul 2019 13:54:57 +0000

Waterfowl in general have wandering, inquisitive natures and are easy targets for the many predators and other hazards which abound in the wild. To be able to maintain and enjoy a collection, whatever its size, you will need to provide secure fencing. We often hear from householders who move to a property with a body of water and they wish to add birds. They will be adamant that there are no foxes, but there is nothing more attractive to predators than a confined ready meal. The foxes will surely come.

There is a lot of time and money involved in building a pen so time spent at the planning stage is time well spent. We advise newcomers to visit some waterfowl breeders to look at their fencing before embarking on an extensive construction. How you fence your birds is largely going to depend on what you want out of your collection. Are you planning a carefully controlled breeding unit for show birds? Maybe you want a ready supply of eggs for the family and premier slug control for the vegetables, or perhaps the home garden is carefully manicured and in need of a feathered element. There are different solutions for all these options.

There are many types of poultry fencing and netting to consider. Their suitability is governed by the type of waterfowl to be kept in, predators you wish to keep out, whether birds are shut in at night or not, the size and location of the pen and of course, your budget. It is common practice to shut domestic ducks and geese in at night. Most are easily trained to follow the feed bucket and will soon get into the habit of going into their houses. However, they are not as obliging as chickens when it comes to bedtime. Their ancestors would have taken to roosting on open water rather than in trees, so their innate behaviour isn’t on our side. You can guarantee that the night you are running late for a supper engagement will be the one when they are challenging! Overnight housing means an extra level of protection. You will still need fencing around the perimeter to safeguard the birds during the daytime though.

Wildfowl, the ornamental undomesticated species we see from all over the world, need to be treated slightly differently. A few may tolerate being shut in, but on the whole they are better left unhoused. Secure fencing 2 metres tall is needed all the way round the enclosure. The foot needs to be dug in and there should be an outwards overhang at the top.

Poultry or rabbit netting is available in various heights, mesh sizes and thicknesses to suit all budgets and it is therefore the most commonly used material. However, hex netting does not have the longevity and durability of hi-tensile fencing, weld mesh or chain link and if it is not installed properly it is prone to sagging. The choice of a heavy-gauge will ensure fencing lasts longer and looks nicer. In terms of mesh size, 25 mm offers a good choice to keep both waterfowl in and predators out but it may only be necessary to use this on the lower level, with a lighter gauge for the top half. Whatever mesh you choose, having a good tight installation is vital for longevity, appearance and also safety.

Hi-tensile poultry fencing is designed for the free-range poultry market and has optimum stay and line wire spacing for bird safety and welfare. Despite being more expensive at the outset than traditional poultry netting it is durable, long lasting and easy to install. One of its main advantages is that it retains its shape, therefore always looks smart. It is especially suited where other livestock are present or where there is the need to tie in with other livestock fencing. The line and wire spacing at the bottom of this fencing is not small enough to keep ducklings in or to keep predators like mink and weasels out.

Weld mesh is a good option for permanent fencing as it will last for years. Although it requires fewer posts than hex netting, it is more expensive at the outset. Weld mesh will stand up particularly well to predators such as badgers and dogs. For absolute security 12 gauge 25 mm mesh is recommended but if smaller vermin are not a problem then 50 mm mesh is adequate. Weld mesh is a good choice for use in construction of aviaries and smaller pens.

Chain link offers a strong and robust option for those who wish to fence the exterior of their whole property or create very large pens. In the long term it provides a secure, low-maintenance and a cheap option although it can be cumbersome to install. Choice of a heavy-gauge, 50 mm mesh is recommended to provide a secure boundary; however, it must be combined with a smaller mesh wire at the bottom to keep your bird heads in and predators out! The supporting posts can be wood, metal or less attractive, but more durable, concrete.

There are some products available with coloured coatings if appearance is important – green, brown and black being the most popular. Aviaries are usually constructed with the intention of viewing the occupants. Matt black is the usual finish, being the least obtrusive. This is also true of being inside looking out. A black mesh give less impression of containment. Black waterproofing paint is easily applied with a roller, but put newspapers or dustsheets down to stop the spatter falling on the ground. Posts need to be protected from the elements and particularly the area just below the surface. Above ground, these too look less obtrusive if they are a dark colour.

Electric poultry netting offers a versatile fencing solution that is relatively cheap and easy to install. However, both ducks and geese are prone to sticking their heads through, getting stuck or tangled in this type of fencing. They can also get tangled in it if panicked which can result in serious injury or death. It is, therefore, not recommended for waterfowl.

If you intend to let your birds wander the garden during the day and then to shut them in a shed at night, a fence 1.2 m (4ft) in height will keep in most domestic waterfowl with the exception of call and bantam ducks that are not wing clipped or pinioned. In the breeding season these females are prone to flying out to lay eggs elsewhere and once broody may well be lost to predators.

The drawback to this husbandry system is the need to shut up the birds before dark and never to miss an evening. The fox checks on you every night!

Foxes, badgers, cats and dogs are the most common creatures to try to scale a fence to get to confined waterfowl – the fox being the most persistent and destructive. Small predators, like rats, mink, stoats and weasels, will often get in but can be dealt with by trapping. If you wish to keep small ground predators out, to keep ducklings in or to prevent adult birds poking their head through then 25 mm poultry/rabbit netting will be required for the lower level. This can be combined with 50 mm poultry netting above or used in addition to other more robust fencing choices. It is advisable to bury at least 300 mm of this wire into the ground to prevent foxes or badgers digging under your fence and for a further 60 cm to be carried up the fence. If it is not possible to dig down the wire can be turned out and pegged firmly; either laying it on the ground near the surface and covering with turf, or covering with soil for the grass to grow through. This will also prevent birds escaping under the wire. It will not prevent a badger digging through and you will need to be vigilant for signs of other digging.

If constructing a fence with an overhang, electric fencing or wire mesh are equally effective materials. If using mesh, it should deliberately be left floppy as this is more difficult for foxes to scale.

The addition of electrified wire outside the fence is nowadays considered essential, but you should always ensure that the electric wires are properly insulated from the main structure of the fence. Two strands at low level and one at the top would be a minimum. The presence of electric fencing should be placarded.

Systems powered by a 12 volt car battery and energizer, sited near the fence, are simple and easy to maintain. You can add a solar charger to this system to top up power on a daily basis but most small solar panels will only be sufficient to prolong the time between battery charges. If using the mains supply, don’t forget a backup system will be required for when the power is down. Whichever system you choose without a good earth rod the fence will not operate properly. 300 mm stakes provided in most electric fencing packs are not sufficient, a 1 metre earth rod driven into the soil is recommended.

It is always advisable to test and run an electric fencing system for a couple of days before you place any valuable birds in the pen for the first time, thereafter the fence should be routinely checked to ensure it is working efficiently. Small testers are available for this which show the charge being sent out and indicate its power; in addition a small light can be linked to the wire at an easily visible point, which will flash with each pulse of the fence. It is important to control surrounding vegetation to stop short circuiting of the system.

Entranceways to the pen should be well sited for ease of access and avoid wet areas. It is advisable to have a wood or concrete sill between any gateposts to deter predators from digging through at this vulnerable point. Gates and doors opening towards you are a good idea if there is any possibility of snowfall blocking access. You cannot dig your way in if it opens inwards! Don’t forget that putting up a good fence and leaving an easy climbing frame such as the gate or the branch of a tree is a big mistake, try to think like a fox and ask yourself how you would get in. It might save you trouble in the end.

Good fencing is costly, but it is money well spent.

The post Fencing appeared first on British Waterfowl Association.

Plants

bwpadm — Sun, 14 Jul 2019 13:54:53 +0000

Planting for Natural Ponds

The main priority when keeping heavy domestic ducks and geese must be to maintain sufficient grass. A few geese about the place can certainly help to keep the grass down. If your flock are destined for the festive table, overgrazing in the winter is not so much of an issue. But what if you want an ornamental area to look attractive with the waterfowl? As a general rule, if the grass in a bird enclosure does not require cutting in the summer, then you are perhaps over-stocked with birds. The fine green baize at the water’s edge will be mud by spring. A suitable resilient grass mixture will depend on your individual situation but recommended varieties to include when sowing are perennial rye grass, cocksfoot, fescues, timothy and white clover. A paddock mix can be very cost-effective for large areas, though not so suitable for gardens.

Ponds will require suitable reinforcement around the edges. This will serve to prevent banks being eroded away, stop mud around the area becoming a problem and protect the roots of surrounding plants. Stones, concrete or timber containment will be required if the shape of the pond is to stay constant. Gravel around the perimeter helps to prevent erosion. Other substrates could include shells or broken slate. Whatever you choose, remember that web-footed workers will dibble and re-distribute your careful placement. Wood chips are generally not advised as these harbour disease and fungal spores as they start to decompose.

All plants introduced to your pens will be investigated by your birds, so it is best to avoid poisonous plants. There is a list in the sidebar (at the foot of this page if you are viewing on a mobile).

Some of the simplest plantings can look most effective; repetition is a trick frequently used by landscapers. Areas of Carex species alongside the shorter grasses will give welcome cover for nesting. Taller still, the Miscanthus family can make an effective backdrop. In large areas you could go for Phragmites, though this is also tall and invasive. Alternatively, many wildfowl keepers prefer to keep their birds in a garden setting, where planting is a matter of taste for the gardener. Pampas grass can look fantastic but ultimately it requires a lot of maintenance. The leaves are finely serrated and stronger than strimmer line, gloves are definitely required for cutting back. Most ornamental grasses and ferns will make a superb display if given time to establish.

Ideally the enclosure should be planted and established before birds are introduced. Should you have to plant after the arrival of your birds, then your plants and flowers must be protected, until they are fully established. 25 mm wire netting, 50 cm high, placed around each plant will provide this protection and prevent the plants being destroyed by the inmates. The construction and layout of the pen should be attractive but practical. Will you be able to negotiate a barrow easily, or eventually bring in a digger without flattening a prize specimen? The aim should be to provide adequate cover for nesting birds, shade in the summer and protection in the winter. Remember that too much planting will obscure your birds!

There are very few plants that your geese and ducks won’t eat, in particular they enjoy new growth, but some plants stand up to waterfowl better than others once well established. You may dream of an Impressionist’s garden, rich with water lilies, but their buds appear to be a delicacy for most species. Plants are as important as the water itself; providing food, harbouring insects and aquatic life, giving valuable shelter, offering cover from predators and allowing sites for nesting and protection for ducklings in their first few weeks. Newly sprouted growth is the most nutritious. Seed trays of sprouted seeds are a valuable way to supplement bird diets.

In any planting scheme you could aim to create a plant profile using species four basic categories:

Trees and shrubs
Marginal plants
Submerged plants
Free-floating plants

Trees and shrubs should be planted back from the water’s edge to provide shelter from the prevailing wind and useful breaks from sun, frost or snow. Small trees and bushes near the water’s edge may also provide a frost free spot on the water and a supply of invertebrates to the pond but excessive shading and leaf litter will affect the water quality so should be avoided. Here, evergreens are perhaps most suitable, the many dwarf varieties are ideal, being slow growing and so not invasive.

Leaf litter and dense cover bring both benefits and disadvantages. The natural cycle of growth, senescence and decomposition can cause a problem with water quality. Many ornamental wildfowl such as mergansers pick up small sticks and can swallow them, with disastrous consequences. After pruning it is imperative to collect every scrap of brash if these species are kept. Rough areas can harbour vermin, so these points should be considered.

Marginal plants tend to tolerate fluctuating water levels. They help stop bank erosion, provide cover for birds, attract invertebrates and aid the survival of ducklings. Sedges, reeds and flags are all good marginal plants that provide an ideal habitat for both ducks and their insect food. These do need to be well established before introducing ducks unless you cover the roots with mesh or erect a temporary protective fence.

Submerged plants and free floating plants will only survive if your waterfowl stocking density is very low. These will encourage invertebrates and provide an important source of food for diving ducks. By serving as oxygenators, they can also help improve water quality and the health of the pond.

Mare’s tail is an excellent choice of oxygenator and can be planted as a marginal or submerged plant, not to be confused with horsetail which is a very pernicious weed. For variation you might include water crowfoot, which bears attractive white buttercup flowers and foliage above and below water.

Free floating plants, such as duck weed, are an important food but they can cause problems by covering the pond completely. Duckweed floats on or just below the surface of the water, providing cover for the fry of many species and an important food source which is very high in protein. They can also help with nitrate removal, so act as water purifiers, and in summer a decent coverage will help reduce water evaporation. A second popular free floating plant to add interest is frogbit, which floats on the surface looking like a tiny water lily. Frogbit hibernates at the bottom of the pond in the winter but in the summer re-surfaces to provide shelter for tadpoles, small fish and larvae, if any have survived the foraging waterfowl. It is worthwhile having a protected separate pool to grow on floating plants for youngsters.

The post Plants appeared first on British Waterfowl Association.

Predator Control

bwpadm — Sun, 14 Jul 2019 13:54:49 +0000

Trapping

Few things are more soul destroying than coming out one morning to find your precious birds lying around dead or half-buried after a visit from a fox. Although the fox is perhaps the most destructive predator, we need to be aware of badgers, cats and dogs, crows and magpies.

Small predators like rats, mink, squirrels, stoats and weasels will always get in unless you build an enclosed aviary, but they can be dealt with by trapping. There are three main types of predator which can be trapped:

crows and magpies
foxes and rats
mink, stoats and weasels

Always wear a pair of old gardening gloves when you are trapping, as the scent of human hands lingers for days.

Crows and Magpies

These can be caught in a Larsen trap. These are available from most gamebird suppliers. They are very effective for magpies and crows, especially if a call bird is used. Recently there have been changes to the rules regarding the taking of wild birds, you should check on the current situation here. Caught birds should be despatched swiftly and humanely.

The trap works on the principle of a new bird invading the territory of the existing birds. They fly down to investigate, land on the trap perch and are caught. For the best results it is advisable to use a magpie call bird from several miles away. Incidentally, this trap will catch crows if set in a crow’s territory i.e. under one of their nests. The call bird must have water and be fed daily. The food can vary from hen eggs to pieces of rabbit or pigeon or some tinned dog food. The trap must be attended to each day and regularly moved to a new position. Trapping times mainly correspond to the breeding season, from early March to April and again in June to catch fledgling magpies. It is not uncommon to catch a complete family in this way.

Foxes

Foxes are wily and can smell us coming. They are well aware that there are duck dinners to be had and will be patrolling your fences each night. Foxes can be caught in a live-catch, weld-mesh box-trap using a dead bait of an opened chicken or rabbit. It can be set anywhere but is best near to outbuildings or poultry sheds. Use straw or hay round the entrances to the trap and inside as well. You will have to check it daily, particularly early in the morning. The animal should be dispatched quickly and humanely by an experienced person. This trap is sometimes not so successful in rural areas. The best defence is adequate electric fencing. If one fox is removed from a territory, others will move in.

Rats, Mink, Stoats and Weasels

Rats are attracted by food, eggs and young ducklings. Stoats and weasels are mainly a problem when they are feeding young and will take eggs, ducklings and goslings. The best plan is to organise a number of strategically placed tunnel traps containing Fenn Mark 4 traps round the outside of the enclosure to catch any of these predators before they have a chance to get inside. If necessary, you can use some live-catch cage-traps in the enclosure as well, hoping you don’t get too many of your own inquisitive birds at the same time! (This is why you use live-catch traps here.) A trap in a box is also effective. Use maize or corn as bait for rats, and anything fishy for mink.

Mink will kill anything, at any time of year. They normally hunt in small groups so, if you catch one in an outlying trap, there are likely to be more. Many counties are actively attempting to eradicate mink. You may be able to get advice from a local Wildlife Trust, who might come and set monitoring floats. These are a tray of damp clay on a raft covered by a tunnel. They will show you what species are routinely passing through.

Rats are a nuisance all the year round but especially in the autumn when they come in from the fields to look for shelter and food. If food is left out for ad-lib feeding, it can be very difficult to clear an infestation so it is important to act straight away if any signs are seen: worn trails, dropping latrines at the water’s edge or earth thrown up from a tunnel. The rat is suspicious of anything new, they are neo-phobic. They do not see particularly well but have a keen sense of smell; they do love a tunnel. Poisoning should only be done outside the enclosure. Bait should not be accessible to non-target species and bodies should be sought out and destroyed by incineration. Rodenticides are more strictly controlled now than they once were. The strength available to the amateur is half what it was. The quantity you can purchase is also limited. Read the code of practice for bait poisoning here.

Snap traps in closed rodent boxes are very effective. The entry holes are small enough to exclude most ducks. Peanut butter is an excellent bait. Outlying tunnel traps are worth spending a little time on as they will be working continuously and must be checked at least once a day. They can be built of wood, stone, bricks or soil and turf. They should provide what looks like a safe haven for ground vermin to run into and out of at the other end – the theory being that most rats or mice don’t like to linger too long in the open. Traps near gateways work well, so, using some drainage pipe at each end, build up a tunnel with a space in the middle inside for the trap to work in. The tunnel must be above the water table and accessible only to vermin. Try to make the surrounding area look as natural as possible with a nice wide mouth leading to the entrance. Bring the chain attached to the trap through the wall of the tunnel and peg it to the ground outside. Use a slate or tile as a lid over the top so you can gain access when you want to remove the trap. You should be able to see at a glance if you have caught anything when you bend down and look along the tunnel. This is important if you are trapping near a public right of way or are open to the public gaze. If the trap is set properly it will kill every time. When you are re-setting it, don’t forget to flick the safety catch off before replacing the cover over the top.

The post Predator Control appeared first on British Waterfowl Association.

Ponds

bwpadm — Sun, 14 Jul 2019 13:53:38 +0000

Pond Location

The ideal site for a collection of wildfowl is probably a fairly extensive garden with natural running water. Waterfowl enjoy basking in the sunshine, but appreciate shelter from strong winds. Because ducks in particular spend a lot of time on the water, a sunny and sheltered position for their pond is favoured.

Ideally, a pond should not be sited under trees where falling leaves can sink and accumulate, as they will rot. Leaves that do fall should be removed by skimming before they sink. Willow is very attractive, it comes in many forms, but sadly there are problems associated with willow leaves: Cladosporum spp. of mould that lives on willow trees can affect feather quality.

If a pond can also be seen from one of your windows then all the better. The word ‘paddlinge’ is a medieval collective noun and describes a pool on which ducks, presumably domestic, were kept to help calm the life of the keeper. Our distant forbears surely recognised the therapeutic quality of waterfowl on a pond, viewed from their living space.

Natural Ponds

A pond is usually preferable to a river or a stream so that water levels can be maintained. An ’off-stream impoundment’ can be made by diverting some water and returning it further downstream. Before interfering with a natural watercourse, or even pumping, it is advisable to consult the local Environmental Agency Office, as there are regulations in force concerning water abstraction and related activities. The water level flowing out of a pond, possibly between a series of ponds, can be controlled by the use of a ‘monk’; a construction which is used mainly on fish farms since it enables the water level to be lowered relatively easily. The water normally falls over the top of the monk and is led away through an outlet pipe either to a lower pond or a series of ponds. Removal of the front boards leads to rapid lowering of the water level when pond maintenance or dredging is required, or if fish are to be caught! Where there is a neglected existing pond it should be dredged as deeply as possible for diving ducks, with shallower areas for the dabblers. A natural pond does not require any lining, but it is frequently desirable to protect the edges from erosion since the feet and constantly probing bills of wildfowl can be very destructive.

Rough concrete, or carefully laid stones can form a permanent protection to banks, but all crevices should be sealed. Ducks in particular have a dangerous and sometimes fatal habit of dabbling in holes and cracks and getting their heads wedged so that they drown or are strangled.

Soft edges will need protecting. Heavyweight black nylon mesh (Nicospan or similar) could be staked alongside the banks as a protective barrier. In theory, vegetation grows through this revetment so that it becomes disguised, but in practice any leaves are frequently eaten or mutilated as soon as they appear. However, it is possible to plant more substantial overhanging shrubs which droop and form a camouflage. Even hardy plants with woody stems are likely to require protection from inquisitive bills in the early stages of growth. Secure them with a circle of hard netting whilst they get established.

Artificial Ponds

If natural water is not available, satisfactory small ponds can be of fibreglass (GRP) or concrete or lined with butyl. GRP is relatively expensive and is generally only readily available in very small sizes. It can be formed on-site though as a custom installation.

Concrete is renowned for its permanence so long as it is thick enough – at least 4 inches is recommended. If possible, the base should be laid a few days before the sides, and the joins should be rendered watertight with a proprietary bonding or sealing compound. Rearing pools can be constructed out of concrete blocks and waterproofed using swimming pool products.

Pond liners are an area where you usually get what you pay for. Top of the range is heaviest gauge of butyl. Thought should always be given to how birds will get out of the pond, even if water levels drop a bit for any reason. Edges of the liner will be constantly scratched by sharp claws. It will also degrade in sunlight if exposed. An overhanging edge of paving slabs not only screens the top of the butyl from the human eye, but it also protects it from damage as the waterfowl scramble ashore. There are black underlays available which can be used to hide edges, with time some grasses may grow into them if your stocking density is not too high. A properly installed and cared for liner should have a life expectancy of at least ten years, often more with butyl.

Where any liner is installed, a flat protected surface at the lowest point is worth designing in. Mechanical pumps are heavy and generally need to remain upright when in operation. Consider how you will get them in and out of the water, and how you will provide power.

Water Maintenance

The greater the depth of an artificial pond, the easier the maintenance, because sediment settles to the bottom. This sediment is only disturbed if divers are present. On the other hand, when you do empty it out the job is a much bigger one. The water must be kept clean so that the birds’ plumage stays in good order and so that the eye and nose of the keeper are not offended. A soak-away can readily be incorporated in a concrete pond: if a pipe, of at least 75 cm in diameter, with a threaded end is placed through the lowest point of the base, the cap can be unscrewed and the entire contents allowed to drain away. The removal of the cap can be an unpleasant chore but with a little practice it can be achieved without the operator’s arm being immersed in a black, smelly and sometimes cold, solution for too long a period. Thereafter, vigorous agitation with a broom should ensure that the solid particles disappear down the pipe, along with the liquid. The more enterprising entrepreneur will install a release mechanism which can be operated from above water level. A vertical tube projecting a few inches above the level of the water is ideal.

Small ponds can be emptied by bailing out with a bucket. This can be quite a strenuous exercise if an appreciable amount of water is involved. Siphoning can be done but this is usually too slow a process and semi-solids get left behind. Pumping is therefore most practical but care must be taken to ensure that sediment does not block the mechanism. Agitation will mix the solids with the liquid so that the pump can cope. A sewage pump designed to cope with such solids does the job well, and the black muck can be pumped straight onto nearby grass. The smell dissipates after a few days and the turf will recover and appreciate the feed.

Waterfowl are at risk when a newly emptied pond is refilled. This is usually a slow process. The birds will want to return to the water as soon as they can. If the sides of the pond are steep, they will have difficulty in getting ashore until the water has returned to its natural level. The once-happy swimmers may wish to leave the water whilst the level is still low and during their frantic attempts to escape, they may become exhausted and perish. A temporary fence, erected around the pond until it has refilled, will avoid potential disaster. A raft in the pond, on which the birds can perch, will provide refuge until dry land is again accessible.

Rafts and Islands

Rafts and islands can be interesting and welcome features on all but the smallest ponds. Boards, say one inch thick, can be secured together with battens to form a floating island which serves as an admirable roost.

Buoyancy can be maintained by the fixing of partially filled plastic containers on the underside so that they are hidden from view. If the buoyancy is adjusted so the water overlaps the surface from time to time, for example when several ducks are roosting simultaneously, their weight lowers the raft and droppings are washed off.

A well-designed island is a tremendous asset for a collection of wildfowl in captivity. The banks on islands need to be protected even more than the shoreline, as you will not have such easy access for maintenance. Whether left natural or judiciously landscaped, the birds will benefit from the seclusion and relative safety from certain predators that the vegetation and comparative isolation will provide. The birds can be encouraged to nest on an island by the provision of nest boxes and by allowing undergrowth to flourish, but if eggs are to be collected, accessibility must be borne in mind.

It is a myth that waterfowl are safe from foxes and rats when on islands. Rats are particularly good swimmers and the vixen will stop at nothing if she has cubs to feed. Read our page on Fencing.

Aviaries

One method of keeping wildfowl on a small scale is to house one or two pairs in an aviary. Mandarin, Carolinas and several species of teal such as Ringed and Blue-winged appear to adapt fairly readily to such confinement and an advantage is that they can be free-winged. The addition of small cage-birds can work as they don’t interfere with the ducks but careful choices on species need to be made. It is very important not to over-stock an aviary.

An aviary pool which is a metre in diameter and 30 cm deep should be adequate for one pair of ducks. If it takes the form of a concrete-lined depression, the water can be swept out almost daily without too much effort. The surrounding area must be pervious and topped with loose small stones, such as pebbles, so that the water can drain away. Ducks love to pick up and play with small pebbles around the pond. Some pebbles will be dropped into the water so care must be taken if emptying the pond through a drain in the base. It is advisable to have a cage over the plughole to stop birds being sucked away.

Shrubs can be planted in the aviary to provide some privacy. Check that your choice of plants doesn’t include anything poisonous, there’s a basic list of poisonous plants in the sidebar. Artificial boxes for cavity nesters are essential if breeding is contemplated. Aviary birds are safer from predators than when in an open enclosure and within such a sheltered environment breeding results are often very good. Choose your species with care. If birds do not settle in reasonably quickly and show signs of distress, perhaps you should consider swapping them with someone who has more space and keeping something more suitable yourself. Please read about our rights and responsibilities (also in the sidebar) as waterfowl keepers.

The post Ponds appeared first on British Waterfowl Association.

Raising Waterfowl

bwpadm — Sun, 14 Jul 2019 13:51:54 +0000

Wild waterfowl are usually led to the relative safety of water by one or both parents soon after their down is dry. Many duck and goose breeders use broody hens to incubate eggs. If they hatch under the broody, she will do an excellent job of caring for the youngsters. No matter how strong the imprinting is on the foster mother, it will not outstrip the urge to swim. Despite the hen scolding and fussing at the waterside, waterfowl still love to splash about!

If brooding under a duck, goose or swan, oil from the adult’s feathers transfers to the downie. As soon as the youngster starts to preen itself, we see the use of its own preen gland increasing. It is thought that swimming helps the development of this gland. The oil produced is key to maintaining the fine structure of the down and eventually the feathers, which are both vital in insulating the bird. The fine barbs and barbules of the feathers must remain supple in order to mesh together and allow the microstructure to be water-repellent. This integrity is actually more significant than the hydrophobic properties of the oil itself.

Artificially reared birds may need to have their access to water limited to short periods until they are able to maintain their own down. Some breeders of the most challenging species will get them swimming straight away. Experience will be your best guide and observation as always, is the key to good stockmanship.

Imprinting is a specialised form of learning that happens in some very young animals so they develop a strong irreversible attachment to the mother. It is only possible during an extremely limited ‘critical period’ soon after birth. Imprinting has a huge effect on wild hatchling survival. Though waterfowl imprinting on humans undeniably gives pleasure to many who rear waterfowl, it is not necessarily the best approach. The individuals may not learn the social cues of their own species and may never go on to form a normal relationship with their own kind.

When we talk about breeds, we mean variants of a domestic animal. Call Duck, Cayuga or Campbell; all are descended from the Mallard Anas platyrhynchos, which is a wild species. Given the opportunity, they can all interbreed. The other wild ancestor of a domestic duck breed is the Muscovy Duck Cairina moschata; where domesticated, there is little variety in its body form, so it is known as a single breed, but with various colours.

The range of wild waterfowl we keep as ornamentals are different species; for example Ringed Teal, Red-crested Pochard or Ruddy Shelduck etc. Whether or not they are able to hybridise depends on many factors, but in the wild, species are often separated by geography. Where their ranges do overlap, interbreeding generally does not occur because youngsters learn the breeding cues from familial groups. When we keep and rear closely related species together, this social learning can go awry. Each species is different, but the knowledge of who you should be breeding with is not necessarily instinctive; it is a partly learned behaviour. With this in mind, clearly it is better to rear each species as a group. However, if you have a single downie hatch, it will probably be happiest amongst others of similar size rather than being reared alone.

The attrition rate in wild waterfowl is high. A Mallard can have two or three clutches of more than a dozen eggs per year: we’d be knee-deep in ducks if they all survived. They are naturally a really important food source for a wide range of predators in an intricate web of life. With captive waterfowl, we tip the odds in our favour to get a good return and need to be prepared for their development. In the earliest days, hatchlings of similar age and size can be reared together, making management easier. As they age, breeds and species develop at different rates and may need to be separated. It is worth considering here what your plans are for the future of the birds.

Sudden, unexpected noises and visual events strike fear into young birds and where we have them confined in rearers, they cannot flee to the cover of undergrowth. So it makes sense to allow them to grow accustomed to your voice and appearance. Commercial units generally have a strict policy on who accesses growing birds, to minimise losses from panic. On the smaller scale, waterfowl will be confiding and calm if regularly exposed to your presence as a keeper. Anything that avoids sudden panic, such as talking or singing as you approach will improve the welfare of your birds. Geese in particular are very social and make greeting calls whenever they meet, some of the wild duck species do the same.

As the downies grow and their need for heat reduces, they become ever more adventurous. They also become increasingly messy and waste management becomes onerous. Unlike chickens who will happily scratch around on a dry substrate such as shavings or straw, the associated wetness of waterfowl means these are not ideal. Bacteria and fungal spores will build up in warmth and moisture. There are two approaches to growing on you could consider. For small batches, an elevated brooder works well. This should have a mesh floor, over an easily cleaned surface. At one end will be a pool of water and at the other a loafing and drying area with a heat source. Stock boards to isolate the areas make management easier. If the brooder is sufficiently long, the running to and from the water to the food helps to improve their condition as they grow.

Getting youngsters out onto grass is very satisfying. Geese and some other waterfowl have an instinct to graze very early on. Without turf available, goslings will frequently graze each other. Hanging some lettuce or dandelion leaves can be a distraction, or even snipped grass floating in a dish of water. Grass is so popular that this option will last less than an hour. There is nothing like the real thing. You should not expect to have an immaculate lawn for long though. A brooding box with an open floor and rain proof lid will be useful. A tray of water needs some form of exit and entry, the humble brick is often adequate. You will either need two people to move it safely or have wheels at one end if it is to be of a useful size. Great care is needed if birds are kept in the brooder as you move it: far better to catch them gently and place them in a box or bucket or coax them into one on its side and scoop them up whilst you attend to the housekeeping. Pens will gradually have to increase in size.

With wire enclosures on grass, you do need to provide some form of shade and shelter if there are no trees or bushes. As the pens are moved, the used patch should be swept of debris and hosed off to allow the turf the chance to recover. Short lawn grass is ideal but nothing survives the constant padding of growing webbed feet — if this bothers you, rear fewer at a time or spread them over a wider area.

The post Raising Waterfowl appeared first on British Waterfowl Association.

Incubation

bwpadm — Sun, 14 Jul 2019 13:51:22 +0000

In an ideal world, female waterfowl should incubate their own eggs. However, for a number of reasons this is not always practical in captivity. We may remove eggs because the mother is not a good sitter or is being disturbed by other birds. Sometimes if the first clutch of eggs is taken away, it is possible that the female will lay a repeat clutch in the same season.

Going ‘broody’ is a natural phenomenon with nearly all birds that incubate eggs. It is particularly obvious in female waterfowl. Males may guard nests; some species may even share the incubation. It varies from species to species how much involvement drakes, ganders and cobs have in the raising of the family. This may influence our decision whether or not to parent rear. Geese and swans, where males play a parental role, are frequently more successful.

One method for larger ducks and geese is to take the eggs, as they are laid, and replace them with dummies of near identical size and weight, until the clutch is complete. Then, should a predator find the nest, at least some of the eggs may be saved. However, despite this risk, it may be better to leave small duck eggs in the nest rather than exchanging them for dummies. Very small bantam eggs, matched for size and weight, may be an alternative substitute but not always. Some of the smaller teal can be very suspicious of any disturbance and are better left until the clutch is complete.

Egg Collecting, Storage and Record Keeping

Memory, especially with several different species or broody hens sitting, can be embarrassingly unreliable! It is therefore recommended that a simple record (on a card) is kept with each clutch. Notes can be taken on a smartphone too, but hard copy is still a sensible option. The species; the date incubation started; and the anticipated date of hatching should be written down. Notes on the nature and effectiveness of the broody or location of the nest might be kept too.

Cleanliness is one of the best ways to improve your success with incubating. Take a fresh container with clean straw and soft lining. You should also have a separate bag to carry any obvious addled eggs, the aim is to prevent transfer of harmful bacteria. Eggs should be stored on a tray of sand in a cool place. A wine cabinet is one option for storing eggs. The ideal temperature is around 15°C. A few degrees above or below this figure while the clutch is being collected should do no harm to the eggs. Normally a clutch takes up to 14/16 days to complete.

The eggs should be turned a couple of times a day, as the mother would do each time she returns to the nest. As soon as down from the mother bird’s breast appears, covering the eggs in the nest, it can be assumed that the clutch is close to being completed. Clear the nest of dummies and scrap the nest site if you want to encourage the bird to lay again.

Artificial Incubation

The type of incubator you choose will depend on how many eggs you plan to set and what your budget is. They all work on similar principles: to replicate the temperature consistently that the parent bird would provide, allow fresh air around the eggs to let carbon dioxide escape and have some means of turning the eggs. Automatic humidity control is available on most machines. The accuracy and sophistication of incubators largely depends on what you pay.

The temperature for incubating waterfowl eggs is usually 37.4°C. Some incubators can schedule a brief cooler spell, replicating the time the bird spends off the nest. During the course of incubation, the egg loses about 15% of its weight. This is mostly down to transpiration and is affected by the humidity surrounding the egg. If too much moisture is lost, the hatchling may struggle to get out. Too little and the bird may not be able to breathe in the air sac before hatching. The ideal humidity for incubation is 55%, rising to 60-70% for hatching.

Egg turning is often automated too. If it is not, or has malfunctioned, you will need to turn the eggs yourself. This needs to be done in alternate directions at each turn. Turning is very important for the development of the embryo.

Hygiene is really important. Eggs should be checked regularly by candling (a strong light shone through the egg). Any eggs not developing should be discarded before they contaminate healthy eggs. When the correct incubation period is close to completion, be ready to move the eggs to a hatcher. It really is best NOT to allow eggs to hatch in the incubator but done in a separate hatcher.

Broody Hens

Using a broody hen is a very traditional but effective way of incubating.

The ideal broody is steady, quiet, clean of feather on feet and does not mind being handled. Good broodies are hard to come by so it is best to keep your own flock. You need a ‘bank’ of spares, ones that have proven themselves and in turn should have been bred from, to fix the characteristics you require – the incubation and rearing of the waterfowl. Silkies, Sumatra Game, Scots Dumpies and crosses of these breeds are cited by many as being the best sitters.

For a modest collection, a bank of three to six broody boxes and a series of short netting covered runs are needed. When the hen has gone broody, she should be gently moved from the run to the box. This is a good time to treat her with a proprietary delousing agent. A base layer of clean sand, covered with leaf mould or a sod of grass, shaped into the form of a nest, should fill the bottom of the box. A few dummy eggs should be left under the broody for a day or two to test her. All this is best done in the evening. The next evening, she needs to be lifted from the broody box for exercise in her run, and then the dummy eggs can be removed, and the waterfowl eggs slipped in.

An experienced breeder will candle the eggs once or twice during incubation – it is best after 10 days and again after 20 days. As you would do with eggs in an incubator, eggs are candled by shining a bright light through the egg. Any which are completely clear after 10 days are infertile and if, after 20 days, you cannot see clear signs of blood vessels then the embryo has most probably died and is going rotten. Such eggs should be removed so they don’t contaminate the good ones.

Broody Care

The broody boxes need ventilation holes and should be kept in the shade or under shelter to avoid heat stress to the broody in hot weather. She needs to be allowed off the eggs at least once a day, fifteen to twenty minutes on average, at the same time each day. She should have water and food receptacles that she cannot turn over in the run. Wheat, cut maize and a little grit is suitable food. She must have time to both feed and pass a dropping during this period. If possible, a dust bath should be provided. Experience with the individual hen will tell you whether you have to shut her out with the slide from the eggs or not. Some will hurry back to the eggs before defecating with unpleasant results later for the eggs, hen and handler!

Although the broody will be turning the eggs herself, she may need help to turn larger goose eggs, and the breeder should do this as a routine precaution. During dry conditions it may be beneficial to dampen the ground around the broody boxes.

Hatching

You will need to check incubation times for the breed or species you have. ‘Downies’, as young waterfowl are often termed, will be heard calling within the eggs up to forty-eight hours before they are due to hatch or the eggshell has been chipped. The broody will sit tighter and will be less inclined to leave the nest for food or exercise. It may take seventy-two hours for all, or the majority of the eggs, to hatch.

Light spraying of the chipping eggs with tepid water might be beneficial at this stage, especially in periods of dry weather.

The downies will not need food for twenty-four hours or so, since they have yolk reserves to draw upon for sustenance.

Rearing

At this stage a brooder should have been prepared which will house both hen and downies on clean ground. Preferably it should be an area of closely mown grass upon which waterfowl have not been kept recently, to avoid potential parasite problems.

This is where a good broody really proves her worth, not only as an incubator, but brooder too. Depending on the species, chick crumbs, turkey crumbs and duckweed should be introduced for the young. This will be sampled by the broody and she will coax the downies to try, and indeed to eat. Water should be available in shallow trays filled with smooth pebbles so that the young don’t get too wet before their down and preen glands have become active. The brooder, hen and downies should be moved onto fresh clean ground every day.

Finally, all broody boxes and incubating equipment should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected ready for the next valuable batch of eggs or young to be hatched this season, or the next.

The post Incubation appeared first on British Waterfowl Association.

Infrastructure

bwpadm — Sun, 14 Jul 2019 13:51:01 +0000

Planning Ahead

We always recommend finishing the facilities before introducing the birds. How large and how fancy is going to depend on space, budget and personal taste. Many features in a waterfowl set-up will be common to all species and breeds; security, water provision and access.

We would hope that starting to keep waterfowl will be the beginning of a long-term adventure. With that in mind, it is worthwhile considering how you will manage when you are not so fleet-of-foot. Small things like designing in access for a wheelbarrow or buggy for delivering the feed make sense. Next year, assuming you keep males and females together, you will hopefully have more birds than you started with. What will you do with those youngsters?

Many of us find our facilities growing in an organic way. We learn from our first steps and tend to expand. Planning the order of work is not necessarily a skill that we all have, so it is worth visiting other keepers to learn about potential pitfalls. For instance, if you get a digger in to create a pond, might you prevent access for using a tractor-mounted post knocker?

Even if it is just on the back of an envelope, it’s worth making a plan!

The post Infrastructure appeared first on British Waterfowl Association.

Waterfowl First Aid

bwpadm — Sun, 14 Jul 2019 13:49:45 +0000

Birds that are not in full health will often hide their symptoms well. It may be that an ailment is pretty serious before the symptoms show. Our suggestions below are given in good faith. The intent is to provide a general overview but is not a replacement for specialist veterinary care. Click here to see some vets in the UK who have avian knowledge.

Angel Wing

Angel wing happens when the growth of the wing feathers outstrips the muscle ability to hold the wing in the natural position. It is nearly always due to an imbalance in feeding: too many calories and a deficiency of essential elements. Left untreated, the bird will be unable to fly properly. It might be reasonable to assume that there will be discomfort too.

Flight (and other) feathers in birds are surrounded by a waxy sheath when they emerge. This is filled with blood as the feathers lengthen. These ‘pin’ feathers are heavy and if growth is too rapid, the muscle and tendon development of young birds does not keep up. Wing slipping is where the wing is too heavy to hold up, and the bird drops it to the floor. This can be worthy of taping and treatment, but it is distinct from angel wing because the wing remains in alignment. Angel wing is specifically the twisting of the metacarpals away from the radius.

If caught early and treated straight away, both problems can be corrected. Treatment is best done by one person holding the bird and another doing the taping.

The growing outer portion of the wing should be gently held folded in the natural position. Use a strip of micropore tape to hold it there, following the natural curvature of the wing. Leave a small tab of extra tape-to-tape in the armpit region to allow for growth.

Take care not to damage the quills where they emerge from the skin. Remove the tape after 2 days and re-tape for another 2, reassess and repeat if necessary. There may be a little damage to individual feathers, but after the next moult this will be gone.

Prevention is better than cure. Make sure your feeds are properly stored and in date, so the vitamins and minerals are present (they degrade with time and also if damp). Move growing stock onto a grower ration as soon as feathers start to appear. Starter crumb is only intended for the start of life. By a week old, start weaning by mixing grower pellet in with the crumb. Aim to be 100% grower pellet a few days later.

Aspergillosis

Spores are all around but multiply particularly well in damp rotting vegetation. If enough fungal spores are inhaled by birds, they multiply and produce lethal legions in the lungs and airsacs. Eider and Arctic breeding wildfowl are particularly susceptible.

Waterfowl can be more prone when stressed. For instance; when they have worms, following a predator attack, in hot weather or even after being moved.

The Aspergillus spores grow well too on damp bark chips so it is wise to avoid these as a ground substrate in your pens. We suggest pebbles, shells or sand as an alternative, especially for Arctic species which have no natural immunity. These include the eiders and scoters.

Laboured breathing, poor appetite and general weakness, occasionally accompanied by sticky eyes are an indication of aspergillosis. Never use hay as bedding for nest boxes or housing. Mouldy food and poor storage of pelleted foods are another possible source of fungal infection. Aspergillosis is a very challenging disease to cure. Treatment is by prescription only and expensive, may be prolonged and not effective in severe cases. It will involve oral dosing daily for some time, the stress of doing this further debilitates the bird.

Beaks or Bills

The end of a bill is a hard nail of keratin known as the bean. Underneath is a fine network of nerves. Sometimes the bean can become overshot, often because the bird has no need to forage and wear it down naturally.

The bean can be trimmed carefully with nail clippers. This should be done progressively and in good time. Any doubts, take the bird to the vet.

Broken Bones

Young birds are more prone to injury than older ones. You should bear this in mind when catching up and moving birds. Prevention is always better than cure, so take a look round your pens and think about any places a bird can become trapped.

Breakages can heal well, and remarkably quickly. Longer bones will need to be set and splinted by the vet. You need to protect and immobilise an injury for the journey. A product aimed at the emergency medical market and worth keeping in your first aid kit is SamSplint. This can be cut with shears to fit the bird. Use Micropore tape to hold it in place. It is always a balance between causing further injury and killing the bird through stress.

In all cases, isolating the patient after treatment can help. It needs to be protected from being picked on by other birds. Make a small enclosure with easily accessible water and shelter from the sun and wind. Swimming is often the best form of therapy and a dry, clean loafing area is also important.

Curly Feet and Toes

Toes can be deformed by an accident, poor development in the egg for a number of reasons or by inherited defects. Some problems can be corrected if caught and treated early.

Occasionally after hatching, a foot might not flatten out. The bird walks on its toe knuckles. This can happen if the hatching is slow or too much moisture has been lost from the egg. A small ‘boot’ can be made from a plastic food container and taped in place for a couple of days. Once the foot is used in the natural position for a few days, development is almost normal.

Congenital deformities can happen because of inbreeding. It is wise not to add these birds to the breeding flock. Consideration should alays be given to the comfort and welfare of the bird.

Bumble Foot/Corns

Bumble foot is a bacterial infection entering the foot through a crack or cut causing a swelling on the underside of the foot. This can happen in dry, hot conditions when the bird is running on hard ground, or from an injury caused by sharp objects in the enclosure, so do check your enclosure regularly. Bathing with salt water may help. However if it persists and a hard core/abscess develops under the skin, this has to be removed and veterinary advice should be sought. Corns can be prevented by adding rubber car mats to harsh concrete pond surrounds.

Feather Lice: Trinoton spp., Anaticola spp

Signs: Presence in the lacrimal ducts produces epiphora (excessive tear production), large numbers indicate severe systemic disease.

Diagnosis: Direct visualisation in the skin and feathers.

Treatment: ivermectin, fipronil but not in domestic waterfowl. Beware ivermectin toxicity in some ornamental geese.

Leeches: Thermyzon spp

Signs: Head shaking, sneezing, conjunctivitis.

Diagnosis: Direct visualisation in nasal passages, sinuses and peri-orbital region.

Treatment: ivermectin, manual removal, water treatment. Pans of salt water may allow sea ducks to flush their nostrils themselves.

DVE - Duck Viral Enteritis

Also known as duck plague, the cause is an anatid herpes virus 1. It is shed in faeces and can be transmitted by ingestion or inhalation. Susceptibility depends on species but a wide range of infected waterfowl species has been described. It is believed to be introduced via wild waterfowl such as Mallard which may have roosted on sewage farms.

The clinical signs are peracute death, bleeding from the gut seen orally and from the vent, ocular discharge and avoidance of light, convulsions – do not confuse the terminal convulsions of drowning with DVE. Birds are found dead overnight. The most risky time for DVE to appear is when the soil warms up in March, but it can appear during the warmer months.

Diagnosis is by viral isolation and identification from affected tissues e.g. oesophagus, liver, spleen and intestine. Serological tests are available. A post-mortem examination will often show bleeding from the gut, and the diagnosis can be made with histopathology.

Unfortunately there is no treatment for affected birds. Inactivated and live attenuated vaccines can be used in birds over two weeks old, it requires 2 initial doses, followed by annual boosters. To protect for the most vulnerable time of year, adults should be vaccinated in February. Removal and incineration of carcases is important after an outbreak plus decontamination of water and enclosures where practical.

Introducing something new should be a gradual process.

Egg Binding

Birds laying for the first time, or the sudden return of cold conditions can be the stressors causing females difficulty in passing eggs. Symptoms of egg binding are the bird looking hunched up with feathers fluffed out and generally looking miserable. Sometimes with gentle handling you can feel the egg in the lower end of the oviduct.

External Parasites

Every species has its own form of feather lice. They may be difficult to see, often they are the same colour as the feathers. Lice cause irritation and prevent birds from resting and eating properly. Several species of leeches affect waterfowl and take a blood meal. They can lodge anywhere on the bird but are probably most troublesome in the nasal passages.

Feather Lice: Trinoton spp., Anaticola spp

Signs: Presence in the lacrimal ducts produces epiphora (excessive tear production), large numbers indicate severe systemic disease.

Diagnosis: Direct visualisation in the skin and feathers.

Treatment: ivermectin, fipronil but not in domestic waterfowl. Beware ivermectin toxicity in some ornamental geese.

Leeches: Thermyzon spp

Signs: Head shaking, sneezing, conjunctivitis.

Diagnosis: Direct visualisation in nasal passages, sinuses and peri-orbital region.

Treatment: ivermectin, manual removal, water treatment. Pans of salt water may allow sea ducks to flush their nostrils themselves.

Frostbite

Ice and snow present challenges to birds, particularly as many waterfowl are outside all year. Frostbite is a real danger to webbed feet, especially where there is no natural cover or ponds are shallow. Most commonly kept species can cope with the cold provided they always have open water. Deciding which species are right for your collection will depend on what facilities you can provide and where you live.

The circulatory system of birds minimises heat lost through the unfeathered feet by a heat exchange system. The arteries supplying warm blood to the legs pass very close to the veins returning to the heart, so some of the outgoing heat warms the blood coming back. When arterial blood reaches the foot, it is very cool, so less heat is lost in transfer with cold water. Blood flow is carefully regulated to maintain the delicate balance of providing blood and nutrients but maintaining core temperature.

The small amount of heat reaching the feet may not be enough to stop the tissue from freezing in extreme weather. Where the blood flow stops, areas of tissue die and can be lost. This is seen as blackened tissue which can drop off, but possibly not before some infection sets in. We should assume that there will be pain asscociated with this condition. At the very least, the bird is disfigured. It may ultimately lose the use of the limb.

During periods of prolonged snow, a life-saver can be an open shelter. An ideal shelter is closed on the top and two or three sides to protect the birds from wind and snow. A thick layer of substrate such a sand or straw will allow birds to get away from cold, wet or frozen soil, reducing the chance of frostbite. Heated pads or soil warming cables can be useful. Heat lamps can be added to the shelter to keep the birds warm and dry, but do be aware of electrical safety. If in any doubt, consult an electrician.

Good stockmanship relies on observation. The shelter must be of adequate size for the species and number of birds in the enclosure, and the birds should feel comfortable in them. You should watch closely for any signs that shy birds are being excluded by the bully-boys. Wildfowl in particular do not enjoy confinement. However, if you are calm and quiet around them, they will adapt for short periods. Stressed birds are far more prone to disease so you must be doubly vigilant.

Heat Stress

On the whole, birds from temperate regions are better at keeping warm than keeping cool. It is important to provide shade.

Birds do not sweat, but can regulate their body temperature to some extent by panting.

In very hot spells some may enjoy a spray of water, having cool water available helps them cope. A fine mist from a garden hose may be welcome, as will a dish of ice cubes.

Some keepers choose to house their birds under cover when summer temperatures are excessive.

Not all species have the sense to stay out of the sun when it is hot. Do not assume that birds will make the connection with shade and cooler temperatures in the way we do. Introducing something new should be a gradual process.

Limps

A limp is always worth investigating and early treatment is usually the most successful.

Birds that are limp are usually in pain, and a vet should be consulted to treat the cause of the limp and alleviate the pain of the bird.

Inspect the bird in the hand for thorns, cuts, bumble foot, dislocation and breakages. Small wounds of the feet and legs happen from time to time. Bush prunings, particularly if thorny, should always be removed from waterfowl pens.

Internal parasites can cause lameness so this should be considered if a bird is limping.

After treatment for minor injuries, a short period of confinement in a small enclosure away from boisterous fellows will allow natural healing to happen.

Worms and Parasitic Diseases

There are several different types of worm that are known to affect waterfowl. In the wild many species of tapeworm and flukes appear to live in harmony with their hosts. Numbers can build up and become a problem where waterfowl are gathered closely together and at greatest risk of sharing parasitic diseases. Routine faecal testing (and on new birds brought into the collection) should be done to assess the health status of the birds and treat them properly.

Young stock can have a slight immunity, inherited from their parents. The immune system takes time to become robust, so we recommend that young stock are turned out onto fresh pasture. Short grass allows sunlight to get to the soil, killing off some of the egg cysts.

Signs of significant worm burden include:

Limping or being unable to walk at all
Losing weight
Apparent ‘coughing’ or beak gaping
Head shaking as if to dislodge something
Drop in egg production
Worms seen in the droppings
Blood in faeces or around the vent

Several worm species can build to dangerous levels. Thus, a routine programme of cleaning and resting pens and ponds should be devised. Treatment with anthelmintic drugs can be done routinely, say twice a year, at the start and end of winter. Alternatively, where stocking density is low and pasture rotated, worming can be carried out when an excessive burden is suspected. Several veterinary labs offer analyses for parasites. These results could allow you to target your treatment more specifically.

A course of wormer should be repeated after 3 weeks in severe infestations. This will deal with eggs picked up after treatment and before they reach maturity.

Parasitic worms:

a) Tracheal:Syngamus spp, Cyathostoma bronchialis.

b)Proventricular: Echinuria uncinata

c) Capillaria:Capillaria contorta
d) Caecal: Heterakis sp.
e) Conjunctival: Oxyspirura mansoni

Diagnosis: coughing, lethargy

Treatment: Flubendazole, preferably outside the breeding season.

Air sac mites:Cytodites nudus

Signs: Cough, dyspnoea.

Diagnosis: Observation in air sacs and airways.

Treatment: ivermectin.

Haemoparasites: Plasmodium sp. Leucocytozoon sp. The latter can be problematic during the summer when more vectors are present, young birds are more seriously affected.

Signs: Lethargy, weakness, anaemia.

Diagnosis: Observation of parasites in a blood smear.

Treatment: Chloroquine.

Coccidiosis: Eimeria sp, Tyzzeria sp, Cryptosporidium sp, Wenyonella sp.

Signs: Weight loss, anaemia, renal disease, sinusitis, conjunctivitis, tracheitis.

Diagnosis: Tracheal/conjuctival swabs, faecal exam.

Treatment: Amprolium, toltrazuril, sulfa-trimethoprim, paramomycin.

Toxoplasmosis: Toxoplasma gondii reported in geese.

Signs: Anorexia, anaemia, emaciation, CNS signs, diarrhoea.

Diagnosis: Serology.

Treatment: Clindamycin.

Trichomoniasis: Trichomonas sp.

Signs: White-ish plaques in mouth and oesophagus, regurgitation, weight loss.

Diagnosis: Wet mount smears from areas affected.

Treatment: Carnidazole.

Schistosomiasis: Dendritobilhargia pulverulenta, these trematodes invade intravascular spaces in some part of their life cycle, very common in diving ducks and geese.

Signs: Multisystemic signs. Reported as cause of encephalitis in swans.

Diagnosis: Histological exam of affected tissues, flukes in aorta.

Treatment: Praziquantel.

Hardware Disease

This is a term used in North American collections and is very descriptive. Foreign objects picked up by curious birds cause damage to the oesophagus and the gut lining and can lead to peritonitis (blood poisoning). It is especially important to collect up all screws, bits of metal and wire, netting staples etc. that may be dropped when carrying out maintenance.

If you suspect one of your birds has swallowed something sharp, like a net staple or a screw for instance, you should take the bird to the vet.

String and soft netting may pass through the gut naturally, but bits hanging out should be clipped off.

Never pull the fibre though, it may be looped around a soft passage where you cannot see it.

Lead Poisoning

Waterfowl are particularly vulnerable because they routinely pick up small stones and grit; shot, fishing weights and pellets look much the same and end up being ground up in the gizzard.

Because birds do not have teeth, they cannot grind up their food like we do. Instead, all birds have a ‘gizzard’ in the digestive tract. This is a strong muscly pouch, constantly grinding away. To aid its performance, birds pick up grit, which stays in the gizzrd. All birds need grit.

Lead affects most body systems. Symptoms include anaemia, loss of co-ordination and paralysis which can lead to starvation, even when the intestine is full of food. Lead poisoning is a nasty way to go and it could take just a single pellet to kill a bird. Worth considering the next time you are tempted to use an air rifle to take a pop at a rat.

Open Wounds

Even a small amount of blood can look very alarming. Skin can be broken during mating, fighting or contact with sharp objects. When treating a wound it is important to know if there is any underlying tissue damage. No two wounds are the same.

Open wounds look horiffic, but birds have a wonderful ability to heal. The wound should be cleaned and an assessment made as to how it can be protected as it heals. Dressing an avian wound is possible with a number of products available from your chemist. In general, if the wound exposes bone or muscle, it will need a suture. This procedure is best done by a vet.

It is wise to isolate the patient so that other pen mates are not drawn to peck at the wound. Make a small enclosure with easily acessible water, shelter from the sun and wind and most importantly, protection from harrassment by other birds. A dry, clean loafing area is also vital. Keeping the injury clean helps and you should consider veterinary help with pain relief.

When feathers are growing there is a sheath of keratin around them which is filled with blood. Sometimes this can be damaged and there will be bleeding. As long as the bird is not unduly stressed or being harassed, this will heal quickly. Catching the bird may do more harm than good, you can try observing it through binoculars to have a closer look at what is going on.

Generally it is best not to catch birds up and move them whilst the wings are ‘in pin’ or ‘wet’ unless they are calm and used to being handled.

Orphaned Birds

Wild waterfowl imprint on one or more parent, most ususally the mother. This bond keeps the family in a tight group after the hatchlings leave the nest. If the mother is killed, the youngsters (often called downies) will tend to stay together but will be vulnerable to predators and extremes of weather.

Poultrykeeper.com has advice on raising wild ducklings.

When we raise downies artificially, they do best in social groups. A single youngster is not always easy to raise and would generally be better off with others of similar size, even if they are a different species. If this is not possible, a small cuddly toy or even a sock ball can be placed in the brooder.

Many species of waterfowl learn social cues from their family group, especially when it comes to mating behaviour. Large wintering flocks of different species can be seen intermingling in the wild, but they generally mate only within their own kind. In captivity this separation becomes fuzzy and anything goes.

Paying attention to which species are likely to hybridise is an important part of planning a mixed collection.

Postmortem

Sadly if you have livestock, eventually there will be deadstock. Waterfowl are relatively long-lived and generally enjoy good health. If you do have a loss, it is important to know why.

Any veterinary practice will be able to advise you about getting an autopsy performed. Although there will be a cost involved, it could be money well spent, especially if it highlights an issue where your management can improve.

Post-mortem investigation is particularly useful to confirm a diagnosis of disease, or perhaps prove that the initial diagnosis was incorrect.

Looking into the anatomy of a bird is an interesting exercise and it will improve your knowledge and understanding of how birds function. If you perform a basic autopsy yourself, always wear surgical gloves and a face mask. Dispose of these and your tools properly and wash your hands thoroughly in soapy water. There are some diseases in birds that are zoonotic, that is they can be caught by humans.

Prolapse

Waterfowl are unusual in the bird world in that they have a phallus (intromittant organ). Occasionally it does not retract, and so is at risk of injury. Risk factors with this condition are over-activity, mating on land instead of water or simply age. Some female waterfowl can also prolapse the oviduct.

Slipped Tendon

The tendon running through the trochlear groove of the hock can sometimes slip inwards (medially). This means the foot can no longer be extended. Though some waterfowl are adept at hopping, the strain of doing so places greater risk of injury on the other limb.

With gentle manipulation, the tendon can be returned to the groove but it will need to be strapped in place using a bandage. This may need to be replaced every few days in young birds as they grow quickly. The strapping should be used for at least a couple of weeks, longer in adults. This injury takes far longer to heal than a break but if treated early can be successful.

Stress

Individuals are affected differently by stress. A hormone known as Cortisol is produced naturally by the body to balance many parts of the metabolism. When subjected to stress, the level of production increases. Cortisol also supresses elements of the immune system, especially the cells that orchestrate a lot of the body’s protection from infection, so barring autoimmune diseases, it’s a given that it plays a part.

What might cause stress in a bird?

Overpopulation
Dirty water
Poor diet
Thirst
Fighting
Injury
Pain
Excess of drakes
Separation from a mate
Parasite burden
Cold
Heat
Fear
Disturbance from pets
Predator attacks
Frequent catching
Moving home

Central to the five domains of animal welfare is mental state, surrounded by nutrition, environment, health and behaviour. A problem with any of these areas could lead to stress. Our responsibility is to provide a safe and fulfilling environment, where our charges may live a healthy and happy life.

We should review our practices regularly to ask ourselves what is best for the birds.

Most areas of the metabolism are inter-related. For instance, a parasite infestation would cause stress and predispose the bird to other conditions. A stressed bird might be more prone to becoming overburdoned with parasites, so it is a vicious circle. Breaking the cycle comes down to good husbandry.

Ticks

Many birds pick up ticks and if healthy, they will not suffer unduly. Due consideration has to be given though to the possibility of disease transfer. Catching birds to remove ticks may cause more stress than leaving them to drop off naturally. You will have to make a decision which option to take based on the level of infestation vs the nature of the bird.

The mouthparts of ticks are easily separated from their body and this must be avoided. The jaws will stay in place and allow an entry to the blood system, possibly leading to infection. It is also important not to squeeze the swollen body of the tick, potentially pushing infected fluid back into the bird’s system. Tick removers are readily available at pet stores and it is worth having them in your first aid kit. They have a fine v-notch, which with a deft twist will remove the offending insect completely.

Topical treatments for parasites are effective against ticks.

In some areas, ticks are responsible for spreading Lyme disease. Lyme disease is a serious bacterial infection, and can affect humans. Keeping the grass short will help to reduce the incidence of ticks.

Vision

Any significant trauma to an eye needs to be seen by a vet, thus giving the bird the best possible chance to retain its sight. Small bits of fluff and seed husks occasionally lodge in the eyelids, but on the whole, waterfowl keep their eyes clean by regular immersion. This is one of the reasons why clean water is so vital for their wellbeing.

Waterfowl have 3 eyelids; one each top and bottom, and a third or ‘nictitating membrane’, which moves under these two from front to back.

Occasionally an eye may be lost due to physical damage or infection. It may be necessary to have an infected eye removed by a vet. Waterfowl can get cataracts, often in one eye. One-sided vision does not impair a bird in captivity unduly. However, it should be monitored for bullying by other birds, who may take advantage of the impairment.

Although a totally blind bird may get along adequately in an area it is familiar with, serious consideration should be given to the bird’s quality of life. Every effort should be made to monitor any deterioration in its ability to function. Euthanising is never done lightly, but, it is sometimes the kindest outcome.

Wet Feather and Broken Feathers

The preen (uropygial) gland is particularly well developed in waterfowl and we are all familiar with the nibbling and wiping that waterfowl do as part of their hygiene ritual. The oil from this gland does not actually waterproof the feathers but it does keep them supple and slightly water repellant. The physical barrier of the contour feathers locked together forms an ‘overcoat’, which cover the down feathers that trap air both for temperature regulation and buoyancy. Waterfowl know their survival is dependent on keeping the overcoat, or ‘integument’, in good order, so a high proportion of their time is spent on preening.

Wet feather refers to the loss of integrity of the feathers. There are two elements to such problems: loss of production of oil from the preen gland and physical damage to the barbs and barbules which allow the feathers to ‘zip’ up. Think of a line between these 2 points and a problem with feathers will fall at some point between them.

The preen gland can become infected or less productive with age, and this will certainly affect the ability of the bird to keep the feathers in a good condition. Factors that cause physical damage to the feather include hard pond edges, oily debris on the water surface, mud, overpreening, and, occasionally, feather mites.

With the contour feathers damaged, the down is exposed, and the bird tends to fiddle with the patch. It may paddle furiously when on the water, attempting to keep the patch dry.

The instinct to preen is so strong that feathers can be damaged when birds over preen. Some birds may do that when they are under stress. The barbules break and the bird knows something is not right, so preens some more and makes it worse. If it is simply mechanical damage (without underlying feather mite, preen gland problem, etc), the problem may go away when the bird next moults. However, it may happen again and may get worse in older birds.

The stress of having wet feather may also lead to other problems, such as aspergillosis.

Another cause is the Cladosporum spp of mould that lives on willow trees in particular. This can grow on the feathers and thus cause over-preening. Washing the bird may help but would also cause stress. Not having willow trees in an enclosure is the obvious long-term solution here and after removal of the willows, once the bird(s) moult, the feathers should grow back again normally.

If the primary cause of the wet feather is a preen gland infection or feather mites, these should be treated. Similarly, any management problem must be addressed, including reducing stress factors for birds that over preen. Affected birds will likely know their own limitations and may avoid the water. Those normally keen to stay in the open may seek shelter from the rain. It may be necessary to keep them under cover during the coldest and wettest months. You should ensure that their diet is sufficient, as they will use more energy to keep warm than a healthy bird.

As with all matters of health, stress and poor conditions increase the likelihood of problems.

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Husbandry

bwpadm — Sat, 06 Jul 2019 21:36:55 +0000

Good stockmanship

Many people enjoy keeping ducks and geese and with a bit of forethought and care, few problems occur. Good stockmanship is very important. This means getting to know your birds and their regular habits, spending some time each day watching them and trying to give them a daily routine. Often it is a change in their behaviour that can be the first sign of illness or injury. It has been said that good stockmanship is 90% watching and 10% doing!

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